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Published: 18 September 2019

Indonesian food culture mapping: a starter contribution to promote Indonesian culinary tourism

Journal of Ethnic Foods volume 6, Article number:nine (2019) Cite this commodity

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Abstract

The nutrient civilization of Indonesia is shaped by several factors such as nature, history, and culture. With its enormous geographic and cultural diversity across the archipelagos, it is evident that Indonesian cuisine is rich in variety and gustation. Equally such, food tin can be utilised as a strategic means to heave the tourism industry of the country. In the past 5 years, the Indonesian regime has given a great support for the development of culinary tourism as i special interest tourism sector that is promoted extensively to the international marketplace. Promoting Indonesian culinary tourism should not be merely exposing the aplenty varieties of the traditional food that Republic of indonesia has, just more importantly, telling the marketplace about the socio-cultural values backside the food itself. This written report aimed to portray how Indonesian food culture has been shaped, adult, and held as the value embedded in the society and has been passed from one generation to the next. For the purpose of the study, a range of literature from journal articles, books, athenaeum, magazines, and articles to Cyberspace sources that are relevant to Indonesian culinary discussions was reviewed.

Introduction

Food plays a significant function in all aspects of man life, including from fulfilling basic physiological needs to edifice social interactions and psychological expression [1]. Food has become recognised as an expression of identity and civilization and has emerged as 1 of the pop aspects of cultural tourism [ii]. Discussions well-nigh food are inseparable from civilisation. As i of cultural tourism's products, the role of food or culinary tourism has go increasingly of import. Culinary tourism is a possible competitive reward that could be cardinal to destination evolution, which in plow, tin can contribute to the overall economic performance [3]. Moreover, local food can exist utilised equally a tool for differentiating ane destination from others in the global marketplace since a state's cuisine exhibits elements of national culture and identity [4].

Considering the size and variety of the country, it is argued that Indonesia should be able to attract more than international visitors [5]. There are thousands of local foods which potentially offer a strong focal betoken to portray Indonesia as a tourism destination. Withal, as stated by the Minister of Tourism and Creative Economy of Indonesia, having very diverse traditional dishes at the same time also poses a challenge for the government to select which particular food to be promoted to the international market [half dozen]. At that place has been an imbalance in cuisine exposure across regions in Republic of indonesia, giving the largest focus still on the food of Coffee and Sumatra. As a consequence, many non-Indonesians are unaware that other regions of Indonesia apart from those 2 have their own singled-out cuisine [vii]. A review of literature has shown that almost references nigh Indonesian cuisines are dominated with pop cooking articles or books containing the recipes equally to how to prepare and serve the dishes. This newspaper, therefore, tin can be seen as one of a few scholarly attempts to innovate the Indonesian food culture to the broader academic audiences. For the purpose of the written report, the rest of this newspaper is structured equally follows. The following section presents food as part of the culture and different values associated with nutrient. Adjacent, a detailed review almost Indonesian food civilization is provided containing the history and the evolving stages of Indonesian food culture. The last section provides a comprehensive description about the characteristics of Indonesian cuisines followed by the typology of Indonesian food civilisation as presented in both narrative and visual means.

Food and civilisation

The term culture is used in a diversity of ways. Culture is a cardinal concept in our noesis of societies both past and present, and its definitions are constantly beingness adult and refined [8]. From the perspectives of folklore and anthropology, culture is being defined as all that is learned, shared, and transmitted among groups of human beings from generation to generation [nine]. Specifically, culture can likewise be defined every bit the values, beliefs, attitudes, and practices accepted past members of a group or community [ten]. The civilization of a particular club is manifested in various means, in its art, language, literature, music, and in all forms of religious and secular ritual [11]. The elements of culture can exist categorised into two: first, observable elements, such as the appreciable characteristics of behaviour, fabric arts, nutrient, language, and social arrangements, and second, the non-observable elements, such as the behavior, attitudes, and values held by virtually people in a club [12]. Also included in the category of not-observable elements are part perceptions, stereotypes, categorizations, evaluations, expectations, memories, and opinions. Members of a like civilisation have like values; conform to similar rules and norms; develop similar perceptions, attitudes, and stereotypes; apply common language; and participate in like activities [xiii].

The process of how civilisation is learned and passed through different generations via language conquering and socialisation is called enculturation [x]. One of the most significant examples of this learning procedure in societies relates to nutrient. Food habits are a culturally standardised set of nutrient-related behaviours that are expressed by individuals who have grown within a given cultural tradition [14]. Food habits can be seen as the ways and rules by which people utilize nutrient from how the food is selected, obtained, and distributed, to who prepares, serves, and eats it [10]. These ways and rules are shaped past multi factors, such as natural resources (due east.g. climate, country, and water), belief (religion and education), ethnicity (indigenous or immigrant), technological advancement (due east.g. hunting, agronomical, angling), and colonisation [15].

Nutrient culture tin be viewed as a product of codes of conduct towards acceptable or unacceptable foods and inside a particular social group [16]. Information technology also sets up the structure of social relationships between members of a guild [17] and is a daily reaffirmation of cultural identity through symbolic meanings of ritual, traditions, and special occasions inside the social grouping [ten]. That is, food culture in one identify will be different from the others.

Nutrient is considered to exist a cultural practice that distinguishes one culture from another [18]. When viewed in particular, it is clear that there are observable cultural differences: in the basic ingredients from which nutrient is prepared; the means in which information technology is preserved, prepared, and cooked; the amount and diverseness available at each meal; the tastes that are liked and disliked; the customs and traditions of serving food; the implements and utensils which are used; and certain behavior about the properties of particular foods. Further, techniques used for the serving and consumption of nutrient also vary cross-culturally [eleven]. For case, in some cultures, it is proper to consume using one'south fingers, whilst convention in others requires the apply of implements. Differences are too evident in eating patterns. Many people, for example, have simply two meals a mean solar day, whilst others accept one large repast, snacking at other times. Some like their food hot, and others similar it cold. Regardless of these distinctions, notwithstanding, it is suggested that all such cantankerous-cultural differences are learned.

Equally a component of culture, food has a pregnant part in shaping individual every bit well as a cultural group'southward foodways. At an individual level, nutrient can portray self-identity [19] and self-expression [10], whereas in a broader context, food echoes the identity that distinguishes one civilisation from another [20]. Even more than, it is suggested that to understand a culture, an individual must experience its food [18].

Values associated with food

As a manifestation of culture, food entails both technical and symbolic functions within a particular cultural grouping [21]. Technically, nutrient functions as the fulfilment of basic human physiological needs [9]. From the consumer behaviour viewpoint relating to consumption values [22], this blazon of eating behaviour occurs for utilitarian or instrumental reasons, which are to satisfy hunger and moreover to run across the nutritional needs of the torso.

Discussing most food is non just about diet [23], rather, consuming food is too associated with hedonistic reasons such every bit seeking fun, pleasure, and sensory stimulation [22]. Food can function every bit a symbol of social unity. For instance, it can be used to strengthen family bonding, develop friendships, and to provide hospitality when members and/or not-members of the group eat together [24]. Furthermore, food represents ethnic, regional, and national identities. Nutrient habits have been used as an important, or even determining, criterion for anthropologists studying cultures [10]. Those from a common culture share the aforementioned aggregation of food variables and vice versa [17, 25]. In the context of eating out, food functions as a symbol of lifestyles and is a distinctive aesthetic feature of modern societies [26]. People often value the sociability office of nutrient and meals more than the quality of the nutrient [27].

The opportunities to dine out together may increase during trips where dining plays a stronger social part amongst visitors, their family members, and/or friends, and destination residents such as local customs and tourism service personnel [28]. For some visitors, food offers an entertainment function where it is i of the most enjoyable activities undertaken during travel. This allows visitors to pursue their motivations of relaxation seeking, excitement, and escapism [29]. Food is a gateway for visitors to actually learn almost another civilisation by experiencing new food in a destination that differs from what they have at domicile in terms of ways of cooking, presenting, and eating [11]. Local cuisine serves as a major means for visitors to capeesh the civilisation of a destination [16]. In this sense, nutrient plays a role as a novel learning experience for visitors. Beyond this learning process, eating is a symbolic human activity, meaning that consuming local food means consuming some other culture or geographical location in order to contain it into ane'due south ain identity [30].

Indonesian food culture

The food civilization of Indonesia is shaped past several factors such as nature, history, and culture. Geographically, Indonesia is the largest archipelago country in the world with 17,508 islands. Its tropical climate and high humidity support a rich and unique blend of diverse natural resources including beaches, volcanoes, tropical forests, and wildlife. The country is within the and then-called Pacific 'Ring of Fire', the meeting point of two of the world'southward tectonic plates which gives ascent to frequent seismic action which in turn produces fertile ash over the land [31]. To a large extent, the western islands of Indonesia are lush and greenish: Kalimantan has rainforests and swampy coastlines and Java and Sumatra, whose volcanos are many, abound with fertile gardens, coconut groves, paddy fields, fast-flowing rivers, and beaches. On the other hand, the eastern islands of the archipelago, such as Nusa Tenggara (from Lombok Due east to Timor), is rocky and semi-barren and is characterised by dry seasons that are longer and harsher. Sulawesi (the Celebes) has a variety of climates and different parts receive their monsoon rains at different times of the year. Further due east, the 'Spice Islands of Maluku' (the Molucas) conform to the image of the lush torrid zone, whilst Papua (w part) has everything from swamps to rainforests [seven].

The seas and straits which surround the islands are at least as important equally the country itself. This is reflected in the mode Indonesians speak not only of 'our land' simply as well 'our land and water' (in Indonesian linguistic communication: tanah air kita) [32]. As its endless coastlines are strategically located betwixt two oceans, Indonesia enjoys an abundance of saltwater fish and seafood. Its many lakes and rivers provide freshwater fish. Not surprisingly, fish, which is ordinarily smoked, grilled, baked, or cooked, is a major source of poly peptide for the people of Republic of indonesia [33].

Republic of indonesia has a striving agriculture industry with carbohydrate equally the largest commercial ingather. Improved agricultural techniques during the 1980s and the 1990s have made information technology possible for the country to grow plenty rice to encounter its local demands. The country is considered as the world's tertiary largest producer of coffee (subsequently Brazil and Colombia), and the second largest producer of palm oil subsequently Malaysia [34] (Fig. one).

With regard to the culture, Indonesia holds cultural richness and multifariousness with more than than 1340 tribes, most with their ain language and dialects [35]. A seminal written report conducted past Statistics Indonesia in cooperation with the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS) in 2013 reported that there were 633 major ethnics in Indonesia. Javanese and Sundanese are the two largest ethnicity groups in the land holding 40.05% and xv.l% of the full population, respectively [36]. Each ethnicity has its own local food leading to a diverse character and uniqueness. There are dissimilar ways to prepare the nutrient (i.e. ingredients used, cooking methods, cooking utensils practical), to serve the food (i.e. types of cutleries used and food presentation), as well equally the style to eat the food [37].

Indonesian culinary development

Indonesia's food civilisation cannot be separated from the country'south long history. In relation to this, culinary evolution in Indonesia tin can be categorised into at least three phases: (1) original stage, (two) multicultural stage, and (3) contemporary stage [37]. Each phase has distinctively way as to how the nutrient is being prepared, being presented or served, and being consumed or eaten which, in turn, shapes a potent basis for the institution of the Indonesian nutrient civilisation. This food culture is learned, shared, and passed from i generation to another and whilst some foodways accept been refined and adjusted, the bulk are withal practical until today.

Original culinary phase

The first phase, called the original culinary phase, occurred during the periods of the great Indonesian kingdoms from the Hindu Kutai kingdom in Kalimantan (400 AC) to the Islamic Banten kingdom in West Java (1156–1580 AC). The word original indicates the food civilisation in this phase is a reflection of how ethnic people undertook nutrient-related activities ranging from food acquisition and preparation to food consumption without the influence of other nations. The ingredients used to prepare the dishes were taken from the surrounding natural resources whilst the cooking technique employed was relatively simple and the majority used manus-fabricated wooden or rock cooking utensils. During this flow, the most pop dishes were being steamed, wrapped in banana leaves, with the main ingredients as rice and cassava [37].

Multicultural culinary phase

The 2nd multicultural culinary phase was characterised by the influence of cooking art brought by successive waves of traders from Europe, India, Middle East, and Red china [37]. Due to the archipelago's strategic location, trade with other nations was established and somewhen became 1 of the most important factors in the country'due south history. European traders came to Republic of indonesia in the sixteenth century seeking to control the area's precious spices, including nutmeg, cloves, cubed pepper, and others. The Portuguese arrived showtime in 1512 only were soon followed by the Spanish, the British, and finally, the ones who became the dominant players, the Dutch [7]. The arrivals of these traders had a meaning influence on the food culture of Republic of indonesia. Given the fact that the Dutch colonised the archipelago for more 300 years, this brought in Dutch civilisation, influencing the Indonesian'south life in many ways including the nutrient civilization, including the way the local cuisines are prepared and named. For example, the rijsttafel ('rice table'—many dishes served on the table with a rice centrepiece) has long been popular as a prominent symbol of colonial eating in Republic of indonesia [32] (Fig. 2).

Cultural assimilation as an bear on of colonialism and migration in terms of different ways of preparing, cooking, presenting, and consuming the food between the local people and the immigrants was something inevitably taking place [9]. In Indonesian culinary history, this is too the case, for instance, the Indian influences can be seen generally in Sumatran cuisine featuring curried meat and vegetables in which herbs such every bit cloves and nutmeg are used following the Indian traditions. In addition, the satay—the method of preparing pieces of meat (lamb or goat) on skewers—is considered as the most noticeable example of Arabic influence on Indonesian food culture; however, the marinades and peanut sauce with which satay is served originates from Java [32]. The European colonists contributed in bringing and introducing chillies to Indonesia, which became one of the key signature characteristics of Indonesian food. They had, in turn, originally been brought by the Spanish and Portuguese from other colonies in Due south America [32]. Other vegetables such as potatoes, tomatoes, pumpkins, cabbage, cauliflower, and carrots came from Europe too [31]. The influence of Chinese cuisine tin can be seen in hundreds of Indonesian dishes with Chinese origin, such equally noodles, which have been adapted to the local taste, customs, and the available ingredients [7].

Moreover, during trading periods, Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, and eventually Islam were brought to Republic of indonesia, and as a result, the introduction of these religions to the local people had its own influence on the development of food culture. For example, nasi tumpeng kuning—a big cone-shaped steamed rice coloured yellow with turmeric and rich garnished—is traced back to ancient Hindu beliefs. The shape symbolises that of the mythical Hindu mountain, Meru, whilst yellow, one of the four sacred colours for Hindus, is the colour of royalty as well equally of worship [7]. Therefore, for most Indonesian people, rice is not only the well-nigh important basic food only it is also regarded as sacred and therefore has corking symbolism in various rituals. It is the manifestation symbol of Dewi Sri, the Hindus' goddess of prosperity and fertility [38]. Rice growing in turn often decides the rhythm of daily life; for case, weddings are often held afterwards the harvest period. Until today, nasi tumpeng kuning is often served at special occasions and at opening ceremonies as a symbol of good fortune, wealth, and dignity. The almost important person cuts the tip of the cone and serves it to an older person who is held in high regard [32] (Fig. three).

Another evidence of the religious influence on Indonesian food civilisation can exist seen from dissimilar meats used across the country. The majority of the Indonesian population is Moslem and as part of their religious beliefs, they are not allowed to consume pork. Consequently, chicken and beef are amidst the nearly common meats cooked in Indonesian cuisine. Past contrast, on the isle of Bali where 90% of the population are Hindu, people at that place exercise non eat beef. Instead, pork is oftentimes institute in many Balinese traditional dishes [7].

Gimmicky culinary phase

The concluding phase is the contemporary culinary phase where the food habits of Indonesian people accept been pretty much influenced past the rapid development of global food service chains [37], starting with Kentucky Fried Craven (KFC) which opened its get-go outlet in the mid-1980s, to the subsequent expansion of McDonald's from 1991. Since then, hundreds of global nutrient service brands have proliferated and in many ways have shaped local eating-out lifestyles. Further, equally an bear on of globalisation, restaurants that offer what then-chosen 'modern' international cuisines such as Japanese, Thai, Indian, and French have grown dramatically in the state, both operated by global and local business organization players. Ironically, in the contemporary stage, traditional food appeared to be put bated since more people prefer to consume what they call 'modern' nutrient. However, in the past few years, the government has taken an impressive initiative to promote Indonesian traditional culinary and re-appreciate the traditional food of the country. To practice so, relevant stakeholders such as industry clan, business practitioners, and educational institutions have been invited to step in to actualise and promote Indonesian culinary both to domestic and international markets. Indonesian cuisine has regained its popularity amongst Indonesian people: traditional food is not simply sold at local food street hawkers (called warung), but there are growing numbers of medium-large scale restaurants which specialise in traditional Indonesian food [39].

Characteristics of Indonesian cuisine

Pre-food consumption: ingredients, cooking methods and utensils

As abovementioned, Indonesian cuisine characteristics are heavily influenced by natural and cultural atmospheric condition. Basic ingredients of Indonesian cuisine consist of a variety of herbs, seasoning, and spices. Most Indonesian dishes use fresh herbs such every bit onion and garlic, jump onion, ginger roots, turmeric, galangal, candlenuts, lemon basil, lemon grass, and not to mention chilli [7]. In addition to these fresh herbs, the inclusion of spices is at the middle of nigh every Indonesian dish. Known as islands of spices, the spices available range from seed, fruit, root, bark, or vegetative substance, and the virtually common include coriander seeds, pepper, nutmeg, cumin, and cloves. Either grated, chopped, or dried, these spices, together with other fresh ingredients, play a part equally a seasoning for the purpose of flavouring the food (in Indonesian language, it is called bumbu) [32]. Besides for cooking, the spices are extensively used for other purposes such as to preserve the food, as a medicine, part of the rituals, and ingredients of cosmetics and perfumery [40] (Fig. 4).

In regards to the cooking method, Indonesian food is prepared according to a variety of ways, being shallow or deep fried, grilled over hot dress-down, simmered, steamed and baked, and relatively speaking, does not require complex kitchen utensils [32]. Its basic cooking utensils include mortar and pestle, chopping lath, cleaver, wok (wajan), spatula, ladle, and steamers, with wok and mortal-pestle considered as the most characteristic. Whilst the wok is used to fry the food, a flat saucer-shaped granite grinding stone together with a granite pestle is ofttimes used to grind or crush the fresh herbs and spices and make them into spice paste (bumbu). Unlike neighbouring Malaysia and Thailand where the ingredients are pounded with a pestle within a deep mortar, the Indonesian people rub or grind ingredients with a backwards and frontwards move across the granite [7]. Also widely used in Indonesian cooking is the assistant leaf, either for wrapping food for grilling, steaming, or placing directly onto hot coals. Banana leaf can be constitute abundantly in Indonesia'due south tropical islands and the use of the leaf equally a wrapper contributes authentic flavour and scent on the food. There are dissimilar means of wrapping the nutrient in banana foliage, depending on the contents and detail style of training [vii] (Fig. five).

During food consumption: meals and ways of eating

The traditional Indonesian meal does not involve courses that are served individually such as entrée, main, and dessert. Instead, each dish is handed out collectively [41]. All food is served on the table, given the influence of Dutch culture—the rijsttafel or rice tabular array. Rice (nasi) is key to the lives of Indonesians [7]. It is considered as the about popular staple nutrient for the majority of the population although in some regions, at that place are variations, for example, sago palm in Maluku islands and corn in Madura isle and some eastern islands [40]. The rice is eaten accompanied by one or two chief savoury dishes consisting of meat such every bit chicken or beef, fish, and vegetables [32]. Likewise the rice and side dishes, information technology is common to have condiments which include chilli-hot sambal every bit well as something to provide a crunchy contrast such every bit deep-fried tiny anchovies (ikan teri), tapioca crackers (krupuk), or deep-fried tempeh [7]. Tempeh is an adaptation of tofu to the tropical climate of Republic of indonesia. It is originally developed in Java since the 1700s and made through a controlled fermentation procedure that binds soybean into a cake form. The fermented soybean holds more protein, dietary fibre, and vitamins than regular tofu, and information technology is widely consumed either equally snack or part of meal beyond the state [42].

Having rice every bit the base of operations of most Indonesian meals, the typical Indonesian menu is high in fibre, complex carbohydrates, and monounsaturated fatty acids. Breakfasts consist of rice, noodles, or meat and vegetable soup, accompanied by Java coffee or tea to start the day. Lunch is the main repast of the day. The meal is prepared all in the morning and is served all at one time. Dinner is often eaten after the workday has ended. Lunch and dinner normally contain staples, meat or fish, vegetables, and condiments [41].

Indonesian meals are commonly eaten with the combination of a spoon in the right mitt and fork in the left paw, although in many parts of the state, such as in Java, it is common to eat with one'south hands. The use the right hand is an adequate custom since the left hand is considered unclean in Moslem religion beliefs. Eating with chopsticks is by and large merely plant in nutrient stalls or restaurants serving Indonesian adaptations of Chinese cuisine. Selamat makan is the polite Indonesian invitation before the meal consumption [7].

Nomenclature of Indonesian cuisine

With its enormous geographic and cultural multifariousness, it is evident that Indonesian cuisine is rich in variety and taste. For example, in using fresh herbs and spices, each office of Indonesia develops its own combinations and intensities to produce a food taste that is either spicy, hot, stiff, sweet, sour, or a mixture of these flavours [31]. Basically, Indonesian cuisine can be classified based on six major islands across the country. Each has different nutrient culture characteristics that are shaped by the natural conditions, history, and civilization of the region.

The nutrient in Sumatra Island is much influenced by Indian and Chinese civilisation. Through its roots in the spice trade era and strategic location in the India-Cathay merchandise routes, nearly Northern Sumatra cities showroom the influence of Chinese and Indian immigrants' ways of life [40]. As the western anchor of the archipelago, Sumatra was the first port of telephone call for Indian and Arab traders, and the coastal Sumatrans heavily adopted their spices as well as stews, curries, and kebabs from these merchants [31]. The most popular cuisine from the island is Padang (Due west Sumatra) food whose signature dish is rendang—a spicy stewed beef in coconut milk [43]. In 2011, an online polling undertaken past CNN to 35,000 'love-nutrient' readers across the globe voted rendang as the acme 50 world's most delicious foods [44]. Moreover, the Padang food eating house chains can exist found throughout Indonesia and neighbouring countries such equally Malaysia and Singapore, thus making Padang every bit ane of the most favourite Indonesian regional cuisines among international travellers [45].

Javanese cuisine is strongly influenced by the isle'south traditional kingdoms such as Mataram in Primal Java and Majapahit in East Coffee. Also named as a regal cuisine, most of Javanese cuisine is considered relatively mild compared to other regions of Indonesia [33]. In Coffee Island, the major ethnic groups are Javanese (70%) who live in Central Coffee and Eastward Java provinces; Sundanese in the western of the isle (twenty%); and Madurese (10%), who inhabitant the island of Madura in the eastern part of Java. There are diverse patterns of cuisine across the regions in the isle. Sundanese cuisine uses a lot of fresh vegetables in its dishes [31]. Farther, food in Central Coffee is distinguished for its sweetness whereas Due east Javanese cuisine tends to exist less sweetness and spicier compared to Central Java'southward. In improver, seafood products are widely used in this region to make shrimp paste condiment, an ingredient constitute in many Due east Javanese dishes [40].

So in that location are Bali and W Nusa Tenggara (Lombok) cuisines. Unlike central and western regions of Indonesia, Nusa Tenggara whose climate is drier, information technology is more common to take sago, corn, cassava, and taro rather than rice, equally staple food [46]. Since the vast majority of the population in Bali is Hindu, this religious conventionalities has reflected greatly the manner Balinese cuisine is prepared; for case, beef is very rarely used whilst pork is more common. On the other hand, although Westward Nusa Tenggara is in close proximity with Bali and the island was ruled by a Hindu Dynasty from Bali, nonetheless, a revolt in 1891–1894 left the unabridged island to the Netherland E Indies colony. Equally a effect, at that place is a mixture of cuisines wherein some are close to those in Bali (Hindu'southward influence) and the others have a impact of Dutch influence in sense of taste [xl].

The cuisine from Kalimantan, the Indonesian region of Borneo island that is located at the heart of maritime Due south East Asia, is appealing too. Its sweeping coastlines and many big rivers provide an abundance of seafood and freshwater fish used in the local dishes [47]. In add-on to this, there are three major ethnic groups in Kalimantan including the Dayak (ethnic inhabitants of Kalimantan), Malay, and Chinese which brand up about 90% of the total population [twoscore]. These singled-out groups support the diversity of the cuisines beyond the island. A big percent of Chinese customs lives in the west of Kalimantan and it is unsurprisingly that cuisine in this region is dominated by Chinese-related ingredients such equally noodles, soy sauce, and pork. On the other hand, at the rest of the isle, the cuisines take strongly influenced past indigenous Dayak food that uses more ethnic spices and fresh herbs [48].

Sulawesi Isle is known for the best sea produce in Indonesia; hence, its culinary gustatory modality has revolved around seafood cuisines. Fish roasted over charcoal (ikan bakar) served with a diverseness of dipping sauce or condiment is a firm regional favourite. Besides Due west Sumatra, nearly of the dishes in N Sulawesi have a very strong flavour that generated from chilli. In addition to this, some dishes in this region serve animals, such as dogs, bat, and forest rats, as the main ingredients of the nutrient [46]. Calling the apply of these unusual food equally scary food, a report was undertaken to examine the miracle of offer scary foods as function of adventure tourism for international visitors not merely elicit emotional reactions like fear or disgust but also thrill and enjoyment, dependent upon visitor's personality and motivation for travel [49].

Lastly, the cuisines from Maluku Islands and Papua, which are drier, are similarly defined by seafood. Nevertheless, the staple food of native people in Maluku and Papua, instead of rice similar the other v regions, is papeda (sago congee), ordinarily consumed with yellow soup made from fish such every bit tuna and mubara fish spiced with turmeric and lime [46].

Table i summarises the characteristics and the classifications of Indonesian cuisine mapping which vary across the regions in the country. The map divides the country into iii major regions: western, central, and eastern part of Indonesia.

Table ane Indonesian nutrient civilisation mapping

Full size table

Conclusion

The preceding review and discussions have shown that Indonesia boasts a long history with diverse influence from different cultures. This diversity has brought significant influences that have supported the establishment of various unique exotic cuisines in the land. This report is anticipated to part as a starter contribution to increment the market awareness of Indonesian cuisine and its richness specially through the exploration of socio-cultural aspect.

Availability of data and materials

All datasets take been presented in this paper.

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Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank the reviewers for their valuable inputs to the manuscript to meet the standard of publication of this journal.

Funding

This study was funded by the Directorate Full general of the Ministry of Enquiry, Technology and Higher Education, Commonwealth of Indonesia.

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Affiliations

Faculty of Business & Economic science, Petra Christian University, Jalan Siwalankerto 121-131, Surabaya, Due east Java, 60254, Indonesia

Serli Wijaya

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The author read and approved the final manuscript.

Author's information

Serli Wijaya is an Assistant Professor at Faculty of Business & Economic science, Petra Christian University, Surabaya Indonesia. She obtained a doctor of philosophy degree from Victoria University, Melbourne. Her research interest is in the areas of tourist behaviour, destination marketing, and special interest tourism including culinary tourism.

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Correspondence to Serli Wijaya.

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Wijaya, S. Indonesian food civilisation mapping: a starter contribution to promote Indonesian culinary tourism. J. Ethn. Food vi, 9 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s42779-019-0009-3

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Received: 23 May 2019
Accepted: 04 September 2019
Published: 18 September 2019
DOI : https://doi.org/x.1186/s42779-019-0009-3

Keywords

Food culture
Indonesian cuisine
Culinary tourism

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Indonesian food culture mapping: a starter contribution to promote Indonesian culinary tourism

Abstract

Introduction